AIMS
The main aim of
this unit is to produce a piece of writing based on library research in
your own subject area.
Before embarking
on the extended writing you will need to consider:
1. the inclusion
of tables and figures in an academic paper
2. the layout of
written work (title and contents page, bibliography etc.)
3. the stages of
extended writing.
1. TABLES AND
FIGURES IN AN ACADEMIC PAPER
In
your essay you may wish to present data of a statistical nature, (as well as diagrams,
drawings or maps). Statistical data are most clearly presented in the form of
tables or graphs. Any graphic illustration which is not a table is known as a figure.
This
includes graphs, maps, diagrams, drawings and photographs.
The
inclusion of tables and/or figures in an essay or paper should help to clarify or
expand an appropriate section of the text. However, you should also ensure that information
contained in tables or figures is self-sufficient and can be understood independently
of the text.
Tables
and figures should be placed as near to the relevant part of the text as possible,
but they should not precede the discussion of them in the text. If the table or
figure is relatively small, then it may appear within the body of the text. However,
large tables and figures are usually placed on a separate page from the body.
A title, or caption, is given to each.
In
addition to selecting a suitable position for tables and figures, you must also refer
to
them in the main body of the text. This may be done quite simply; for example,
after the relevant discussion.
2. LAYOUT OF
WRITTEN WORK
It is important
that you present your work properly. Your department will expect this
during your course of study. Although conventions vary from department to department,
the expected layout will probably approximate to the one below:
Title page
Abstract
Table of
contents
List of tables
and figures (if any)
Introduction
Main body
Conclusion (or
discussion)
Appendices (if
any)
Bibliography
prelims
main text
end matter
The above will
all be identified by headings, except the main body. The material
should be
type-written or written legibly by hand, and presented with the following
• A4 paper
• Margins
• Double spacing
Written on one
side of the paper only
• Numbered pages
•
Indentation or triple spacing for new paragraphs.
COMPILING A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
It
is useful to get into the habit of compiling a bibliography with full details
as soon as
you start to find books or articles on a topic. It may seem unnecessary (particularly
for a short paper) to have such complete references; however, you may find
that later, when you want to refer to a particular book or article, lack of information
makes it impossible or time-consuming. If you keep an accurate record of
your references (for example, on your note cards), it will be an easy task to include
references in the body of your work and to write up the bibliography.
Bibliographical
entries normally follow a strict format, although this format may vary
from one subject area to another. You will have to check what the preferences are
in your subject or department - for example, with respect to the order of
entries (normally
alphabetical according to author's surname) or the writing of the surname
(often in capital letters).
Below
are some generally accepted suggestions. Look carefully at the punctuation given
in the examples, and use the examples as a guideline for your bibliographies. It
is important that you always give all the information which someone else would need
to find the item.
A book
You must record
the following:
• author
• date of
publication
, • title
• publisher
• place of
publication (useful where the publisher is not well-known, or where there
are British and American editions etc.).
The
first and most important item in a bibliography is the surname of the author. Surnames
are listed in alphabetical order. If there are several authors/editors, the book
is listed under the surname of the first author/editor. If the book is edited, make
sure you indicate this by putting (ed.) or (eds) after the name(s).
Examples
(a) Author
(surname first) Date Title (underlined or in italics). Place: Publisher. Allen,
J. R. L. 1985 Principles of Physical Sedimentology. London: Allen & Unwin.
(b) Author, Title,
Publisher, Place. Date. Bourne, M. C. Food Texture and
Viscosity: Concept and Measurement, Academic Press, New York.
1982.
(c) Author
(Date), Title, Place: Publisher. White, Ron
(1986) Writing Away, London: Lingual House.
If the entry for
a book/article runs over more than one line, subsequent lines should be
indented to make the surname stand out, as in (a) and (b) above.
If there is more
than one publication by the same author, the earlier one comes first.
If the author wrote two books in one year, these are listed 1978a, 1978b (for example)
a being the one which is mentioned first in your work.
Example
Grindy, A. P.
1975(a) Mathematical Statistics. Oxford: OUP. 1975(b)
Medical Statistics. Oxford: OUP.
Where you refer
to an article in a collected edition, the editors of the book are mentioned
and the title of the book is underlined or italicised (not the article).
Example
Author (Date)
Title of article (Editors) Name of book, Place: Publisher. Grice,
H. P. (1975) Logic and conversation, in Cole, P. & Morgan, J. (eds) Syntax and
Semantics 3: Speech Acts, New York: Academic Press.
A journal
article
You must record
the following:
• author
• date
• title of the
article
• full title of
the journal
• volume number
• issue number
• page
reference.
Where you refer
to an article in a journal, the title of the journal is underlined or italicised
and the volume and page numbers are given.
Example
Author Date
'Title of article', Journal (underlined or in italics), Volume number./ Issue
number: Pages.
Williams, R.
1986 ' "Top Ten" principles for teaching reading', ELTJournal, 40/1: 42-45.
Unpublished
works
Example
Rignall, M. 1991
Oral Narratives in English and Greek. Unpublished MA. Thesis (C.A.L.S.,
University of Reading).
Note: Remember
to underline or italicise the title of the book/journal {not the title of
an article).
Bibliography
You must include
a bibliography or list of references at the end of every piece of academic
writing. If you list only works
that you have referred to in your essay, you should entitle your list
'References' (or
'Works cited', a title favoured in the Humanities). The title 'Bibliography'
is used when, in addition to sources cited in your essay, you also include
background reading you have not cited.
Finally, look at
the example of a short bibliography below. Variations on this format
are acceptable - check what the particular demands are for submitting bibliographies
in your subject area. Remember that your final objective, when you have
completed all the tasks in the next section, will be to produce a bibliography in
your own subject area.
3. THE STAGES OF
EXTENDED WRITING
There are five
main stages in writing an extended essay:
(a) Preliminary
outline
(b) Research
(c) First draft
(d) Revising
(e)
Final draft.
A. PRELIMINARY OUTLINE
A
preliminary outline is a plan of work which should help you clarify your
thoughts on
your chosen topic for extended writing and help you plan the various sections
of your
paper. It will also help you assess the strengths and weaknesses of your ideas and
allow you to revise them later.
First,
you have to decide on a topic. Until now you may only have had some vague
ideas of what you will write about and have probably acquired a few references
as well as writing a summary of a chapter or article .
When you have a clearer idea of a topic, you might like to brainstorm about it with your colleagues or
teacher. If you are uncertain about what topic to choose, try to
get access to course outlines from your future department.
Alternatively,
it may be possible to look through some recent research journals or
subject
specialist journals for ideas. Now take a piece of paper and
note down any thoughts, questions or ideas you have concerning
the topic. These need not be in any specific order. Organise your ideas
into a preliminary outline of main sections and sub-sections, using any method
that suits you: a skeleton or a mind-map, for example.
Study your
preliminary outline. Delete any ideas you consider irrelevant or insufficiently
related to the main topic. Can you improve on it in any other ways?
For example:
• Are any
sections too long or insufficient?
• Are main
sections of equal weight and importance?
• Do you have
sufficient sub-sections to support each main point?
• Do you wish to
reorganise the order of the main body or any sub-sections?
B. RESEARCH
Having made a
preliminary outline, you will now need to spend a lot of time in reading,
data-collecting and note-taking. Remember to note sources of information and
all bibliographical references in full.
As you research
your paper, you will probably discover new lines of thought or find
that some areas are deficient in data or need more detailed treatment. This
will necessitate
modifying your preliminary outline. Furthermore, as you progress through
your research, you will find that new ideas concerning alternative approaches
will suggest themselves to you. Make a note of these for future reference as
you may wish to incorporate them into your essay. As you collect your data, use note
cards .
C. FIRST DRAFT
When you think
you have sufficient data you should begin writing your first draft. Your
note cards should prove very useful here. You will be able to order your cards to
follow your preliminary outline of main topics and sub-topics. Study the cards thoroughly.
Have you decided on the best arrangement? Do you have insufficient cards
for any particular sections? If so, a little more research will be necessary.
When writing,
you do not necessarily have to begin with Section 1. Begin with the
section you feel most confident about. Having got some of your ideas down on paper,
you will find it easier to progress to the next sections. Write from your note cards
in simple English. If you write on alternate lines on one side of the paper only,
this will enable you to note corrections, amendments, additions etc. more easily
later. However, at this stage concentrate on getting your ideas down on paper rather
than spending time thinking whether you can express your ideas in a better way.
Do not worry if, at this stage, you cannot find the exact word or phrase that you
need.
D. REVISING
You will need to
allow time for re-reading, re-shaping and re-thinking your ideas. If possible,
leave your work for a time. This will allow your mind to re-process your ideas,
and when you return to your work, you will be able to do so more clearly and
more objectively.
Read through
your first draft. It may have been perfectly clear to you as the writer
at the time of writing, but it may not be clear, logical and well organised to the
reader. Leaving your work for a while will enable you to perceive any
difficulties for
the reader. Check the order and clarity of your ideas, paragraphs and sections.
You might find
it necessary to re-order and revise your writing to ensure that your ideas
are more effectively presented and logically connected.
E. FINAL DRAFT
(a) Read through
your revised draft. Do you need to make any more changes?
Have you
positioned tables or figures correctly, and have you referred tov these
within the body of the text? Have quotations and references to other writers
been incorporated correctly?
As you read,
note down any major points you wish to mention in your introduction
and conclusion.
(b) Write the
introduction and conclusion. Writing the introduction may help you
to give a structure to the main body of your essay if you have had trouble
doing so.
(c) Write a
final copy. Make sure that you have included any changes or improvements
that you feel are necessary.
(d) Read through
your final draft. Have you left your reader with the feeling that
this is a complete piece of work? Check that the contents page matches the
text in every detail.
(e) Compile your
bibliography. This is easily done by arranging your bibliography
cards in alphabetical order. Check that all references within the body
of the text are indicated and that you have included all the necessary details
in the bibliographical section.
Sources:
Mackay, John T & S.E. (1998). Study Skills For Academic Writing. London: Prentice Hall
Internaional English Language Teaching.
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